Buddhism and Hinduism

Religion is very important in the cultural system of every society. It is said to be a well built faith in a mystical power occurring in the supernatural state. Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Buddhism and Hinduism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Every person is supposed to adhere with the beliefs and the customs involved in his or her faith on the spiritual base. There are different types of religions but this discussion focuses on just two: Buddhism and Hinduism. These two religions happened to originate in one region in that they share some terminologies which are alike. Their goals are however different on their practices even though they share a lot on the faith (Eliot 15). The following discussion therefore, is inclusive of the comparisons and contractions between these two religions with their differences during their childhoods and the way they were raised. To start with the two religions shar e many things in their beliefs in that they both believe in rebirth which is determined by the actions one does in the daily life. This is where there is rebirth of the individual’s soul into any life form. They both believe that it is individual’s responsibility to work out on his salvation which is dependent on his good actions (Eliot 9). Basing on enlightenment they both believe that it is possible to attain it through rising above individual’s way of thinking and the desires as well as controlling individual’s six senses. It is a common belief on the pain one achieves through too much attachment to people and the worldly things, both therefore advocate in freeing oneself out of the fantasies of the worldly desires. Meditation is a common emphasis to both faiths which liberates an individual; enhance concentration in life and enlightenment .They also practices the tantric practices (Georg and Peter 731). There are contradictions on their beliefs such that in Buddhism godly figures are not involved in their belief basing on the original doctrinal principles even though there is some introduction of Godly figures by the later believers. On the other hand in Hinduism there are 300,000 Gods which are believed in. Advertising Looking for research paper on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These two religions are also different on their foundations which are referred as their childhood state. On Hinduism there is no complete certainty of on who started it and where. It is also believed that this religion originated from the Vedas which were written at about 1000 years Before Christ even though they were still on existence for a long period but in oral form. In Buddhism there is complete certainty of who founded it- the Siddartha Gautama who is known as Buddha. At first he did not intend to create any new religion as he had left for the meditation to modify Hi nduism where he became Buddha as his answer thus the foundation of Buddhism (Bhaskar 5). There are complex rituals performed in Hinduism from the day one is born till death where priests play a very significant role when carrying these roles. On the other hand Buddhism practices these rituals in worship forms without involvement of the priest. Hinduism follows the caste system and believes in excessive asceticism but Buddhism does not pursue caste system and rejects the excessive asceticism. In Buddhism there are no stages that one has to go through in life where one is given freedom to join any depending on the preparedness while in Hinduism there are four stages that one must go through in life which follow in this order: student, family, leaving of the worldly wishes and meditation stage awaiting truth and death. Finally, despite all these differences the two religions play important roles on them that practice them in their way of life (Williams 523). Work Cited Bhaskar, V. S. Faith philosophy of Buddhism. New York: Gyan Publishing House, 2009. Eliot, Charles. Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol I. (of 3). New York: Echo Library, 2007. Eliot, Charles. Hinduism and Buddhism, Volume . New York: BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2008.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Buddhism and Hinduism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Peter C. Hodgson. Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion: Determinate Religion. New York: University of California Press, 1996. Williams, Monier. Buddhism – In Its Connexion with Brahmanism and Hinduism and in Its Contrast with Christianity. New York: READ BOOKS, 2007. This research paper on Buddhism and Hinduism was written and submitted by user Mila Mcneil to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Equivalencias Essays - Screws, Free Essays, Term Papers

Equivalencias Essays - Screws, Free Essays, Term Papers Tabla de Equivalencias Pulgadas A Milmetros Pulgadas mm Pulgadas mm 1/64 1/32 3/64 1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64 1/8 9/64 5/32 11/64 3/16 13/64 732 15/64 1/4 17/64 9/32 19/64 5/16 21/64 11/32 23/64 3/8 25/64 13/32 27/64 7/16 29/64 15/32 31/64 1/2 .0156 .0312 .0469 .0625 .0781 .0937 .1094 .125 .1406 .1562 .1719 .1875 .2031 .2187 .2344 .250 .2656 .2812 .2969 .3125 .3281 .3137 .3594 .375 .3906 .4062 .4219 .4375 .4531 .4687 .4844 .500 0.3969 0.7938 1.1906 1.5875 1.9844 2.3812 2.7781 3.1750 3.5719 3.9688 4.3656 4.7625 5.1594 5.5562 5.9531 6.3500 6.7469 7.1438 7.5406 7.9375 8.3344 8.7312 9.1281 9.5250 9.9219 10.3188 10.7156 11.1125 11.5094 11.9062 12.3031 12.7000 33/64 17/32 35/64 9/16 37/64 19/32 39/64 5/8 41/64 21/32 43/64 11/16 45/64 23/32 47/64 3/4 49/64 25/32 51/64 13/16 53/64 27/32 55/64 7/8 57/64 29/32 59/64 15/16 61/64 31/32 63/64 1 .5156 .5312 .5469 .5625 .5781 .5937 .6094 .625 .6406 .6562 .6719 .6875 .7031 .7187 .7344 .750 .7656 .7812 .7969 .8125 .8281 .8437 .8594 .875 .8906 .9062 .9219 .9375 .9531 .9687 .9844 1.000 13.0969 13.4938 13.8906 14.2875 14.6844 15.0812 15.4781 15.8750 16.2719 16.6688 17.0656 17.4625 17.8594 18.2562 18.6531 19.0500 19.4469 19.8438 20.2406 20.6375 21.0344 21.3412 21.8281 22.2250 22.6219 23.0188 23.4156 23.8125 24.2094 24.6062 25.0031 25.4000 Pulgadas Milmetros Pulgadas Milmetros 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 " = 25.4000 mm = 50.8000 mm = 76.2000 mm = 101.6000 mm = 152.4000 mm = 177.8000 mm = 203.2000 mm = 127.0000 mm = 228.6000 mm = 254.0000 mm = 279.4000 mm = 304.8000 mm = 330.2000 mm 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 = 355.6000 mm = 381.0000 mm = 406.4000 mm = 431.8000 mm = 457.2000 mm = 482.6000 mm = 508.0000 mm = 635.0000 mm = 762.0000 mm = 889.0000 mm = 1016.0000 mm = 1143.0000 mm = 1270.0000 mm Calculo de energa lineal: A x V x 60 Es = = J/cm v En donde: Es = Calor introducido. A = Corriente elctrica. V = Voltaje. 60 = Constante v = Velocidad de desplazamiento en cm/min.

Movie analysis project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Movie analysis project - Essay Example Communication is extremely important in any relationship and though there were a number of factors that contributed to the break-down of Gary and Brooke’s relationships; however the main factor that gave rise to all other issues is the breakdown of communication between the two protagonists. The break-up highlights the importance of communication and how a simple argument over something as inconsequential as ‘doing the dishes’ resulted in dire consequences. To analyze the communication pattern between the two protagonists, the substance of this prose will first analyze their individual communicating patterns that eventually led to the clash. Jennifer is basically a recognition seeker, who is driven by the desire to be appreciated by her significant other, and she actively exhibits her demands. On the other hand, Vince Vaughn character Gary is boorish and a typical slob. Unlike Brooke, Gary is passive and is more of a confrontation avoider that eventually leads to the problem exacerbating as a result. He is inconsiderate that causes him to disregard most of the things Brooke does for him out of love. As mentioned earlier, both characters break off their relationship in the heat of an argument and instead of talking things out amongst themselves, they approach their respective friends who give them really bad advice. Since, both Brooke and Gary are living in the same condominium; they do not communicate with each other or resolve the key issues in their relationship. Their friends and peers push them up the wrong; the sensible decision in this situation would have been to discuss and talk things out maturely. Despite the fact that both the protagonists were not straight forward with each other, Brooke did try to salvage the relationship, even though the methods were not that effective; especially with someone like Gary who is not emotionally candid and keeps his feelings bottled up most of the time. Fromm trying to make Gary jealous to strutti ng around naked around the house, Brooke remained unsuccessful in winning back Gary, who was bothered by what Brooke was doing yet remained passive about it. The final blow to their relationship, when Brooke invited Gary to a concert with him and she thought that this gesture of hers will finally make him realize how much Brooke wants their relationship to last; however, once again Gary fails to understand the significance of this gesture and a s a result Brooke decides to cease all attempts and leaves him. This is a clear example of lack of communication between the two characters and misunderstandings between that led to the separation. Misunderstandings encircle their relationship and the situation was aggravated by friends and peers, who acted as inept arbitrators. Though, both characters loved each other but the main source of conflict arose from inability to understand each other’s needs. Gary never understood Brooke’s need for appreciation and she never understo od that Gary did not want to be hassled by questions after a long day at the job; in other words both needed ample amount of space in their relationships that could have led to effective communication and they could have avoided several arguments and even the one that led to the break-up. The movie also shows

Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Questions - Essay Example It has been reported that GhostNet worked on behalf of the Chinese government. This group causes the target computers to download the malicious software and gives control of computers to attackers. The US department of Defence has been attacked so many times by this group (Lord & Sharp, 2011). Cyber attackers target the important official websites for breaching the important data. Threats of computer security are inventive, which are used to harm the individual as well as business computer systems. For example, the computer network of the White House was breached by hackers on October 2012. They used the spear phishing attack. Another incident occurred when federal IT staff of Canada was fooled by hackers as giving them access to computers of government offices. In this way, the hackers got the access of the government systems (Websene, 2012). Both, individuals and businesses can install the perimeters firewalls, which permit only the authorized users to access the network. The network can be protected from the attack â€Å"Denial of service â€Å"by using the perimeter firewalls. An individual or business network administrator should configure the email servers to remove or block the attachment of emails, which are used to spread the viruses, and other, many attacks. Individuals and businesses must keep the backups of their important data (Symantec Corporation, 2011). It is concluded that the information security is important from both inside and outside attackers. Similarly, the data security from blended attacks must be ensured for both individuals and

Copyright Infringment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Copyright Infringment - Research Paper Example The trademark infringement by U-Haul caused confusion, mistake and commotion through creation of an impression that its services and products were produced or distributed by PODS. U-Haul misused PODS trademark after it had unsuccessfully attempted to acquire it in 2007 and gained access to private data concerning the company. U-Haul argued that the manner in which it used pods was not associated with the unsuccessful acquisition of PODS while further arguing that pods is a generic term and thus the PODS trademark should have been revoked. Copyright infringement is defined as a use of work under the protection of copyright law without authorization therefore impinging on particular exclusive rights accorded to the holder of the copyright. According to the essay, cases of trademark infringement are usually complex and very expensive with the one associated with U-Haul and PODS having almost three hundred entries while at the same time being comprised of numerous orders, motions and dep ositions of professional witnesses. Such cases are decided in the basis of whether a normal customer can mistake the trademark for a different product (Packard, 2013). This makes such cases extremely challenging to prove since trademarks should be unique words and not descriptive words in order to make them easier to prove. The PODS trial focused on how the word pods is defined and used while assessing whether the company’s trademarks were protectable. At the end of the trial, PODS was pleased with the decision of the jury.

Biocompatibility Study of Lactobacillus Casei

Biocompatibility Study of Lactobacillus Casei BIOCOMPATIBILITY STUDY OF LACTOBACILLUS CASEI ISOLATED FROM CUCUMBER AND EVALUATION OF PROBIOTIC EFFECTS IN THE HUMAN GUT NANNU SHAFAKATULLAH* and M. CHANDRA Abstract: Probiotics are live microorganisms introduced orally in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) that are able to contribute positively to the activity of intestinal microflora and therefore, to the health of its host. A variety of probiotic supplements are currently available in the market which target towards improving the balance and activity of the intestinal microflora. Probiotics must have robust survival properties in the gut in order to exert any beneficial health promoting properties. Many in vitro properties, such as adhesion, co-aggregation, aggregation, hydrophobicity, resistance to pH, bile, etc., are usually investigated to determine if a specific selected strain would be suitable as a probiotic. Lactobacillus casei has been isolated from raw cucumber and identified based on phenotypic and biochemical characteristics. The isolate was studied for its survival at acidic pH, bile salt, intestinal juice, gastric juice, co-aggregation, aggregation, different NaCl concentrations, the ir action against pathogens, and resistance to antibiotics. The organism has shown well resistance to antibiotics, gastric acids and bile digestion and also exhibited good adhesion to intestinal mucosa and aggregation properties. Key words: Biocompatibility, cucumber, gastrointestinal tract, Lactobacillus casei, probiotics Introduction: Probiotics are defined as â€Å"live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host†1. The use of probiotic bacteria for the health of human has been increased from the last decade due to the increased research on benefits of the probiotics for human. Knowledge of gut health and awareness of general health consciousness in human leads to the search of new probiotic bacteria2-7. It has been proved that irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, and antibiotic-induced diarrhea that occur due to the imbalance in the intestinal microflora can be reversed by the intake of probiotics.Lactobacillus species are â€Å"Generally Recognized as Safe† (GRAS) microorganisms and they are the most commonly used microorganisms as probiotics and are the most desired intestinal microflora. It is important to study the biocompatibility of the lactobacillus species before using them as probiotics. Acidic pH, bile salts, and gastric and intestinal juice in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) are the major stress factors that the probiotics should overcome in order to survive in GIT. Other than their survival capabilities, the probiotic microbes consumed should possess the capacity to adhere and colonize in the gastro intestinal tract. More the adherence capacity of the probiotics more is their chance to retain themselves in the GIT and provide positive effect to the consumer. In accordance with the FAO/WHO8 guidelines in order to prevent the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes from the probiotics to the intestinal pathogens it is recommended that the antibiotic resistance/susceptibility pattern of every probiotic strain (including bacteria with GRAS status) is to be determined. Due to the development of antibiotic resistant pathogens there is increased interest in the alternative antimicrobial strategies for treatment and prevention of infections by using probiotics and their antimicrobial metabolites. Hence, antimicrobial activity against pathogens is a desirable property of a potential probiotic strain. The present study was aimed at isolation, identification, characterization and biocompatibility study of the Lactobacillus strain isolated from cucumber. The biocompatibility properties were investigated throughin vitro assays. Material and Methods Isolation and Identification of Bacteria Fresh cucumber juice was prepared and 1ml of this was serially diluted to 10-5 to 10-6 and inoculated 0.1 ml on to lactobacillus MRS agar plates and incubated at 37 °C for 24-48 hours anaerobically. Gram’s staining, catalase activity, gas production from glucose, acid fast test, MRVP test, gelatine hydrolysis, oxidase test, growth in different NaCl was determined according to methods for lactic acid bacteria9-10. The identification work was done according to the methods described in Bergey’s Manual11 and the Prokaryotes. All the strains were maintained by weekly sub culturing from 48hrs MRS agar cultures. Growth characteristics at different temperature were monitored for 7 days period. Production of ammonia from arginine was done according to the method described by Abdel-Malek and Gibson12, Nitrate reduction was done as described by Gerhardt et al., 13. The isolates were maintained in MRS broth, stock cultures were stored on agar slants in refrigerator and also freez e dried and stored for longer period. Growth at acidic pH The growth behavior of culture isolate was observed at acidic pH to find the acid tolerance capacity of organisms. The Isolate was inoculated in MRS broth with pH 2 and 3 and incubation was done at 37 °C for 48-72 hrs. During these incubation time cells growth was observed and results were recorded. Transit Tolerance: 1. Simulated Gastric Juice The simulated gastric juice was prepared freshly by suspending pepsin 1:10000 (3g/L) (SRL) in sterile NaCl (0.5%) and the pH was adjusted to 2.0 and 3.0 respectively. This was filter sterilized using 0.45 µm filter. The L. casei was grown in de Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) broth at 37 °C for 24 h and centrifuged at 2,500 Ãâ€" g at 4 °C for 10 min. The collected cells were resuspended in sterile saline (0.5% NaCl) and inoculated into the simulated gastric juice (pH 2.0 and 3.0) at 108 cfu/ ml. The test was done in triplicates. Because the pH in the human stomach ranges from 1 (during fasting) to 4.5 (after a meal) and food ingestion can take up to 3 h, tolerance was assayed by determining the total viable count at 0, 1.5 and 3-h incubation in simulated gastric juice (pH 2.0 and 3.0). 2. Simulated Intestinal Juice The simulated intestinal juice was prepared freshly by suspending pancreatin (1g/L) in sterile NaCl (0.5%) and adjusted the pH to 8.0. This was again filter sterilized by using 0.45 µm filter. 1ml of the suspension of the L. casei was inoculated into 9ml of simulated intestinal juice (pH 8.0) and incubated at 37 °C. The test was done in triplicates. The survival rate was assessed by determining the total viable count at 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8hrs of incubation. 3. Bile Tolerance Bile plays an important role in the survival of bacteria in the small intestine. Food remains in the small intestine for around 4-6 hours14 till it gets absorbed. The L. casei was screened for its survival at different bile concentrations. The organism was inoculated into 10 ml MRS broth in test tubes and incubated at 37 ºC overnight in anaerobic condition. 100ÃŽ ¼l of active culture was inoculated into fresh MRS broth tubes with pH 6.5 containing 0.3%, 0.5% and 1.0% bile (CDH India). The bacterial survival was measured by MRS agar colony count by taking 100ÃŽ ¼l culture for 0, 30, 60, 90 and 180 min and aliquots spread onto MRS agar plates to calculate the CFU/ml. The experiment was determined in triplicate to calculate intra-assay variation. CFU/ml was recorded. Aggregation (Del Re et al., 2000) Aggregation assay was performed by growing the isolates in MRS broth for 24 hours anaerobically at 37oC. The cells were harvested by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 15 min, at 4oC. The cells were washed twice and re-suspended in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) to give viable counts of approximately 108 CFU/ ml. Four ml of the cell suspension was mixed for 10 seconds in a sterile tube to determine auto aggregation during 5h of incubation, at room temperature. The upper suspension was used in each hour by transferring 0.1ml to another 3.9ml of phosphate buffer solution, and the optical density at 660nm was measured. Tests were carried out in triplicate and the results were averaged. The auto aggregation percentage was calculated by the formula: 1- (At/A0) X 100, where, At represents the absorbance at time t = 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, and A0 the absorbance at t = 0. Aggregation abilities of microorganisms were screened by visual observation. Co-aggregation The bacterial cells were harvested by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 15 min after incubation at 37 °C for 18h, washed twice and resuspended in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) to give viable counts of approximately 108 CFU /ml. Equal volumes (2 ml) of each cell suspension were mixed together in pairs by vortexing. Control tubes were set up at the same time, containing 4 ml of each bacterial suspension on its own. The absorbances at 660 nm of the suspensions were measured after mixing and after 5 h of incubation (6-9). The percentage of co-aggregation was calculated using the equation Handley et al. (1987) as, Co-aggregation (%) = [(Ax + Ay) /2) A (x+ y)] / [(Ax + Ay)/ 2] Ãâ€" 100 Where x and y represent each of the two strains in the control tubes, and (x + y) the mixture of isolate tested for co-aggregation. Antibiotic Sensitivity test Antibiotic sensitivity test of the isolate was performed by standard disc diffusion method (NCCLS 1999) towards thirteen antibiotics. The pure culture of L. casei suspension was spread on the MRS agar plates to form a uniform smear. Selected antibiotic discs were aseptically transferred on to the seeded plates. The diameters of the zone of inhibition were measured using antibiotic zone scale (Himedia India) after 24 h of incubation. The experiment was repeated thrice and the average inhibitory zone diameters were compared with the standards provided by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Diameters of inhibition zones were measured and results were expressed as sensitive, S (≠¥ 21 mm); intermediate, I (16-20 mm) and resistant, R (≠¤ 15 mm), respectively according to that described by Vlkovà ¡ et al., 15. Antimicrobial Activity Test Agar well diffusion method16 was used to determine the inhibitory capacity of the L. casei against pathogenic strains such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. The isolate and pathogenic strains were incubated in MRS agar medium at 37 °C for 24 to 48 h. Result and Discussion Physiological and Biochemical Characterization The isolate was subjected to Gram’s staining and it was examined under light microscope. The strain gave blue- purple color with staining; hence it was Gram positive bacteria. Isolate was tested for catalase activity. It was catalase negative (do not show catalase activity). To test the gas production from glucose test tubes were observed for 5 days. The Isolate shown no gas production this indicates its homofermentative nature (Table 1). Another criterion for the identification the isolate was the ability of growth at different temperatures (Table 2). From the results of 5 days observation the isolate showed growth at 15-50  °C. Growth at different NaCl concentrations was observed. The isolate has the ability to grow at 2-6% NaCl concentration. Arginine hydrolysis test was another step to follow the identification procedure. The isolate which gave the bright orange were accepted that they can produce ammonia from arginine. The yellow colour indicated negative arginine hydro lysis. The isolate has shown -ve for arginine hydrolysis. Hydrolysis of starch was negative by isolate. The isolate was non motile, non spore forming. The most useful test for the determination of strain differences is carbohydrate fermentation. Twenty one (other than glucose) different carbohydrates were used for identification. They gave different fermentation patterns when they were compared. The patterns are showed in Table 3. Resistance to acidic pH Being resistant to low pH is one of the major selection criteria for probiotic strains17-18. Since, to reach the small intestine they have to pass through from the stressful conditions of stomach19. Although in the stomach, pH can be as low as 1.0, in most in vitro assays pH 3.0 has been preferred. Due to the fact that a significant decrease in the viability of strains is often observed at pH 2.0 and below20. Sudden decrease in the survival rate of the isolate has been observed at pH 2. At the third hour the survival rate reduced below 5%. At pH3 more than 10% survival has been observed after 3 hours of incubation. Tolerance against Bile The isolate was screened for its ability to tolerate the bile salt. Although the bile concentration of the human gastrointestinal tract varies, the mean intestinal bile concentration is believed to be 0.3% w/v and the staying time is suggested to be 4 h. Strain was screened for 3 hours in 0.3%, 0.5% and 1.0% of bile salt for its survival. The cfu values were observed. According to the results the isolate was resistant to 0.3% and 0.5% bile salt. Whereas sudden fall in the number of survival organisms has been observed at 1.00% bile. The survival rate reached to 5% at the end of 3 hours of incubation at 1.00% of bile. Tolerance to Gastric Juice The degree of gastric juice resistance exhibited by isolate was determined and results (Figure 4) showed that >75% of survival has been observed in gastric juice at pH 3 for 1.5 hours of incubation, whereas at pH2 the survival rate was >30% for 1.5 hours of incubation. But at 3 hours of incubation the survival rate at pH 3 reached to Tolerance to Intestinal Juice The isolate was tested for its ability to grow in intestinal juice. It appears that the strain exhibited good resistance to intestinal juice at pH 8 for four hours of growth (Figure 5). Good multiplication of all the isolates has been found at 6th hour of incubation. Aggregation On the basis of sedimentation characteristics aggregation capability of the isolate was tested. L. casei has exhibited good amount of aggregation during the test time of 5 hours (Figure 5). Co-aggregation The co-aggregations of L. casei with five pathogenic bacteria were examined. Results were expressed as the percentage reduction after 5 h in the absorbance of a mixed suspension compared with the individual suspension. Good co-aggregation of L. casei with S. aureus has been seen. There was no co-aggregation between L. casei and B. subtilis. 2-6% of co-aggregation has been seen with E. coli, K. pneumonia and P. aeruginosa (Figure 6). Antibiotic Sensitivity test The determination of antibiotic sensitivity of the isolate is an important prerequisite prior to considering it safe for human and animal consumption. The isolate was subjected to antibiotic susceptibility test. The results are given in Table 4. The isolate was resistant to most of the antibiotics used. According to earlier reports, specific antibiotic resistance traits among probiotic strains may be desirable21. It has been said by many authors that probiotics should be resistant to certain antibiotics when used along with antibiotics to prevent gastrointestinal disorders. Whereas others claim that antibiotics resistant probiotics used may serve as host of antibiotic resistance genes, which can be transferred to pathogenic bacteria. Antimicrobial Activity Test Antimicrobial activity helps to select the potential probiotics strains. Antimicrobial activity usually targets the intestinal pathogens. The isolate was examined for antibacterial activity. L. casei was grown with indicator microorganisms, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. The antibacterial effect on the indicator microorganisms was determined by diameter of inhibition zones. Lactobacilli casei has a high ability to inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. The degree of inhibition was highest in S. aureus, whereas the inhibition was moderate in E. coli, K. pneumonia and P. aeruginosa. The isolate could not inhibit the growth of spore forming B. subtilis. Conclusion: Lactobacillus casei has shown good survival in acidic pH, different bile concentrations, gastric juice and intestinal juice. The organism exhibited good survival in the presence of different antibiotics. The isolate is also able to inhibit the growth of different pathogenic microorganisms examined. All these characteristics of the organism will help it to survive in the stomach and proliferate in the intestine. This will help strains to reach the small intestine and colon and contributing to the balance of intestinal microflora.

Directing Television Programs :: Media Entertainment Essays

Directing Television Programs Directing Television programs requires hardwork and dedication and this involves taking some risks about your life too because as a television director you have to work with different people of different characters and when people are on stage performing they have to work according to your directions. People become tense on stage and they sometimes become frustrated easily by being asked to repeat the same thing so many times and some end up losing temper and they can sometime injure the director both emotionally and physically. There is never free time for television directors, instead of paying more attention to the family needs they devote so much time to their work because of the artistic ideology they posses, wherever they are they should be thinking about how they will direct in the next project and what new things to add on that particular program to put a new look hence giving inadequate attention to their partners/family. â€Å"Rafkin recounts how his directing of temperame ntal actors, as he confronted their frustrations and dodged their blows, made life on TV set a world unto itself. Indeed, having a good sense of humor helped him survive three divorces and as many open-heart surgeries ( Alan Rafkin, Tales from TV's Most Prolific Sitcom Director). † Directors hardly find time to rest since some of them work from morning until sunset and they can have problems with their health. According to Joe Michael from early morning news and talk shows, â€Å" Directors of network morning news programs have one of the toughest jobs. They are responsible for directing ten hours of live programming per week, fifty-two weeks a year. It is a formidable challenge, not only because of the sheer quantity of material, but also because of its variety. The 7-9 a.m. morning programs are a grab bag of formats, combining news, interviews, cooking and lifestyle segments, live remotes, and musical performance (Brian Rose 1). In an interview between Larry Auerbach and David Pressman from the Daytime Dramas, they said. â€Å"Directors of soap operas are hard working directors in the entertainment industry. Unlike their counterparts in film and theatre, their activities are not limited to one or two projects a year, with lots of long planning and down time in between. Even the directors of prime time television, who they most closely resemble, still lead a life of comparative ease, with a schedule measured by, at most, a little more than a dozen hours of actual on-air production per season, mixed with repeats and months off a summer vacation. Directing Television Programs :: Media Entertainment Essays Directing Television Programs Directing Television programs requires hardwork and dedication and this involves taking some risks about your life too because as a television director you have to work with different people of different characters and when people are on stage performing they have to work according to your directions. People become tense on stage and they sometimes become frustrated easily by being asked to repeat the same thing so many times and some end up losing temper and they can sometime injure the director both emotionally and physically. There is never free time for television directors, instead of paying more attention to the family needs they devote so much time to their work because of the artistic ideology they posses, wherever they are they should be thinking about how they will direct in the next project and what new things to add on that particular program to put a new look hence giving inadequate attention to their partners/family. â€Å"Rafkin recounts how his directing of temperame ntal actors, as he confronted their frustrations and dodged their blows, made life on TV set a world unto itself. Indeed, having a good sense of humor helped him survive three divorces and as many open-heart surgeries ( Alan Rafkin, Tales from TV's Most Prolific Sitcom Director). † Directors hardly find time to rest since some of them work from morning until sunset and they can have problems with their health. According to Joe Michael from early morning news and talk shows, â€Å" Directors of network morning news programs have one of the toughest jobs. They are responsible for directing ten hours of live programming per week, fifty-two weeks a year. It is a formidable challenge, not only because of the sheer quantity of material, but also because of its variety. The 7-9 a.m. morning programs are a grab bag of formats, combining news, interviews, cooking and lifestyle segments, live remotes, and musical performance (Brian Rose 1). In an interview between Larry Auerbach and David Pressman from the Daytime Dramas, they said. â€Å"Directors of soap operas are hard working directors in the entertainment industry. Unlike their counterparts in film and theatre, their activities are not limited to one or two projects a year, with lots of long planning and down time in between. Even the directors of prime time television, who they most closely resemble, still lead a life of comparative ease, with a schedule measured by, at most, a little more than a dozen hours of actual on-air production per season, mixed with repeats and months off a summer vacation.

Police Misconduct Essay

What is police misconduct? It can be defined as any action performed by a law enforcement officer that is unethical by established employment guidelines, unconstitutional, or a crime with in itself. When people hear the term â€Å"police misconduct† they automatically think of a police officer using unnecessary force against a civilian. While that is a form of police misconduct it is not only form. Throughout this paper I will bring light to the many types of police misconduct that can happen in the law enforcement industry. While being a police officer, you have guidelines and rules that you need to follow just as if you worked as a chef or even a sales associate you have rules and regulations to follow while at the work place. For police officers though, the rules and regulation still apply while being off duty. Police enforcement officers may use their powers of arrest while off duty, and because of the danger of abusing those powers can cause to individuals and the community, police officers are supposed to be held to a higher standard of conduct, both on duty and off duty, than members of other occupations. Police misconduct can be broken down into 3 categories. Civil, procedural, and criminal. Which means a violation in department policies, a violation in constitutional protections or a violation of the law itself. Not to say that two can’t be broken in one action or even all three at once. Many departments have what is called a â€Å"use of force continuum† which establishes the rule s on what type of force is permissible in response to specific actions that a suspect may perform. These policies are different from department to department. Some may permit officers to use force at the slightest sign of resistance yet others may specifically state that officers may not deploy certain types of force in response to resistance. One type of police misconduct can be the use of excessive force. This means that while a police officer is arresting a person, they use force that is not needed in taking the person in. This can happen in the form of beating a person while making the arrest or using any unnecessary force against the person.  Sometimes police beatings can be racially based or can happen due to an argument between the officer and the person. The use of excessive force in the law enforcement industry is not tolerated in any form. If a police officer is found guilty in using unnecessary force on a person they will be terminated from their job. Using unnecessary force is one of the more know types of police misconduct being that when excessive force is used on a person there is normally charges pressed on the officer and the case is brought into court and therefore into the media. Another type of police misconduct is sexual harassment. This would be when a officer sexually harasses a male or female indi vidual. Most sexual harassment case are from a male officer to a female victim. Some police officers like to take advantage of their authority and will go as far to rape individuals just because they feel that the fact that they are a police officer, they will be able to get away with it. A report done in 2010 showed that 6,613 law enforcement officers throughout the United States were involved with police misconduct. 9.3% was sexual harassment charges of police misconduct. Officer-involved sexual misconduct describes an entire subset of police misconduct that includes non criminal complaints such as consensual sexual activity that occurs while an officer is on-duty, sexual harassment, up to felonys of sexual assault or child molestation. Sexual misconduct was the second most common type of misconduct reported throughout 2010. 618 officers involved in sexual misconduct complaints during that time, 354 were involved in complaints that involved forcible non-consensual sexual activity such as sexual assault or sexual battery. Of the 479 alleged victims of serious s exual misconduct which were tracked, 52%, or 249 were minors and 48%, or 230 were adults. This would indicate that minors are victims of alleged serial offenders more often than adults. Of the 354 officers involved with serious sexual misconduct reports, 56 law enforcement officers were involved in allegations where multiple victims were involved. Another type of police misconduct is known as kickback or bribery. Police officers have numerous opportunities to take financial advantage of those with whom they have dealings. Kickbacks and bribery could come from a store owner who would like extra protection, or from a drug dealer who wants an officer to look the other way. Many police officers get bribed throughout their career. Bribing a police officer is a automatic felony by law. You may not offer a police  officer any amount of money in exchange for a service. Police officers who get caught accepting the bribe will be prosecuted. Recently in Suffolk County a sergeant was found take money from people he believed to be illegal immigrants. He was doing that because he kne w they wouldn’t come forward about the wrongful acts at risk of being sent back to their country. A undercover Spanish police officer was sent out to get pulled over by the sergeant and he did in fact take a 100$ bill from the Spanish undercover and it was caught on camera. SCPD kindly let the sergeant, who has more than 20 years on duty, retire, before he was arrested. He is awaiting trail and could face up to 20 years. Being that he targeted Spanish individuals, he could be charged with a hate crime. In conclusion, Police misconduct is low in the United States because most officers know that they are held at a high level than most members in society, and should be setting a positive example. Police officers also know that just because they have more powers than most individuals they should not be taking advantage of them to benefit personally. Although police misconduct is still a problem that will never totally be fixed, police departments should have harder rules and enforce the law harder on law enforcement officers. By letting Officers retire so they don’t lose their pension before they go on trial to me is wrong and not a way to stop police misconduct.

The Historical Importance of Orville Wright

The Historical Importance of Orville Wright Why Is Orville Wright Important?: Orville Wright was one-half of the aviation pioneers known as the Wright Brothers. Together with his brother Wilbur Wright, Orville Wright made history with the first-ever heavier than air, manned, powered flight in 1903. Orville Wright: Childhood Orville Wright was born on August 19, 1871, in Dayton, Ohio. He was the fourth child of Bishop Milton Wright and Susan Wright. Bishop Wright was in the habit of bringing small toys home to his children after traveling on church business and it was one of these toys that Orville Wright attributed for his early interest in flight. It was the miniature Penaud helicopter that Milton Wright brought home in 1878, a popular mechanical toy. In 1881, the Wright family moved to Richmond, Indiana, where Orville Wright took up kite building. In 1887, Orville Wright started at Dayton Central High School, however, he never graduated. Interest in Printing Orville Wright loved the newspaper business. He published his first newspaper together with his friend Ed Sines, for their eighth-grade class. By sixteen, Orville worked summers in a print shop, where he designed and built his own press. On March 1, 1889, Orville Wright began publishing the short-lived West Side News, a weekly newspaper for West Dayton. Wilbur Wright was the editor and Orville was the printer and publisher. The Bicycle Shop In 1892, the bicycle had become very popular in America. The Wright Brothers were both excellent bicyclists and bicycle mechanics and they decided to start a bicycle business. They sold, repaired, designed, and manufacture of their own line of hand-built, made-to-order bicycles, first the Van Cleve and the Wright Special, and later the less expensive St Clair. The Wright Brothers kept their bicycle shop until 1907, and it was successful enough to fund their flight research. The Study of Flight In 1896, German flight pioneer, Otto Lilienthal died while testing his latest single-surface glider. After reading extensively and studying bird flight and Lilienthals work, the Wright brothers were convinced that human flight was possible and decided to conduct some experiments of their own. Orville Wright and his brother began experimenting with wing designs for an airplane, a biplane that could be guided by warping the wings. This experiment encourages the Wright brothers to proceed with constructing a flying machine with a pilot. Airbourne: December 17, 1903 On this day Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first free, controlled, and sustained flights in a power-driven, heavier-than-air machine. The first flight was piloted by Orville Wright at 10:35 A.M., the plane stayed twelve seconds in the air and flew 120 feet. Wilbur Wright piloted the longest flight that day in the fourth test, fifty-nine seconds in the air and 852 feet. After Wilbur Wrights Death in 1912 Following Wilburs death in 1912, Orville carried their legacy alone towards an exciting future. However, the hot new arena of aviation business proved volatile, and Orville sold the Wright company in 1916. He built himself an aeronautics laboratory and returned to what had made he and his brother so famous: inventing. He also stayed active in the public eye, promoting aeronautics, inventing, and the historic first flight that he made. On April 8, 1930, Orville Wright received the first Daniel Guggenheim Medal, awarded for his great achievements in aeronautics. The Birth of NASA Orville Wright was one of the founding members of NACA aka National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Orville Wright served on NACA for 28 years. NASA aka National Aeronautics and Space Agency was created from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1958. Orville Wrights Death On January 30, 1948, Orville Wright died in Dayton, Ohio, at the age of 76. The home Orville Wright lived in from 1914 until his death, he and Wilbur planned the design of the house together, but Wilbur passed away before its completion.

How to Write a Book in 10 Steps (The Ultimate Guide)

How to Write a Book in 10 Steps (The Ultimate Guide) How to Write a Book: The Ultimate Guide Just about everyone has thought of writing a book at some point - even if you don’t consider yourself a â€Å"writer,† you probably have an inkling of a book somewhere in your head. But whether you’ve only just had your lightbulb moment or you’ve been mulling over a great idea for years, there’s no time like the present to learn how to write a book!Of course, there’s no one-size-fits-all formula here, since every writer has their own unique process. No doubt you’ll discover what works for you over the course of your authorial journey. That being said, there are still certain things you absolutely need to know if you ever want to cross the finish line! We’re excited to share our very best tips, tricks, and other info in this all-inclusive guide to  how to write a book. How to write the book of your dreams in just 10 steps ðŸ“â€" âÅ"  1. Nail down your book ideaNailing down your book idea involves more than just being able to state what it's about - although that is part of it. To really nail down your book idea, you should be able to answer the three important "W" questions:What is it about?Why does it matter?Who will want to read it?Once you’re able to answer these questions, you’ll fill in the blanks of the following sentence:.For example: "CEOs will read my book about workplace culture because it offers insights into the practices of the top ten companies voted 'best places' to work in the USA."Or: â€Å"Female fantasy readers will read my book about the first queen of a patriarchal land because it’s unique and empowering to a new generation of fantasy fans.†Let’s break down the various elements of this equation and show you how to identify them in your own premise.The WhatThe  Ã¢â‚¬Å"what"  is the seed of your book. It’s the beginning of something, and before it can sprout into something more, you have to nail down the essence of what you want to say. This often coincides with the eventual theme of your book - but don’t worry too much about that right now.Instead, just figure out how you would describe your topic to someone in a single sentence. If someone were to ask you right now, â€Å"Oh, what are you writing about?† then the what would be your answer. Whether it’s an adventurous mouse’s tale (tail?) or a vegan cookbook, your â€Å"what† will become the crux of your book.On the off chance that you’re reading this guide and don’t yet have a â€Å"what† - you just know that you want to write a book - consider checking out some writing prompts to inspire you!The WhoIf you’re writing fiction, the â€Å"who† will typically come down to genre - â€Å"romance readers,† â€Å"fantasy readers,† â€Å"sci-fi readers,† etc. You’ll also consider ag e, i.e. if it’s a children's, young adult, or new adult novel.If you're writing non-fiction, it’s all about utility. Who will find the information in your book most useful? The exception here is memoir, in which case your readers may just be looking for entertainment. But if you’re writing a guide, an informative tell-all, or even a historical book, your target audience will be people who want to learn from you.No matter your wheelhouse, it’s extremely helpful to come up with a proto-persona for the person who’ll be buying your book. This should represent your ideal customer and is key to reaching your target audience. Coming up with a hypothetical reader makes it much easier to specifically write to them, which will make them more inclined to buy your book.The WhyAnd finally, the â€Å"why.† With the innumerable experiences and wild ideas that people have in their lives, we all have plenty of books that we could write. Indeed, as we reveal in the Reedsy podcast Bestseller, up to 81% of all people believe they have a book inside them. (Not literally - that would be a lot of stomachaches - but in the â€Å"potential writer† sort of way.)So why is this particular book the one you should write? And, just as importantly, why are you the one who should write it? What makes you qualified, and what makes you passionate about this particular subject? You need to determine a) why this book will matter to other people, and b) why you are the right person to address this topic.Your final result of answering these three "W" questions will be the essential thesis from which you work throughout this process. Once you have this prepared, you can move onto the next step: outlining.2. Outline your bookCreating an outline is one of the most important parts of writing a book - in addition to your â€Å"three Ws† thesis, your outline forms a huge part of the foundation on which you will build your book. Even if youâ€℠¢ve never worked from an outline before, or don’t think you need one (i.e. if you're a pantser, not a plotter), there’s no harm in cobbling one together. 9 Types of Editing: A Guide for Authors Read post If you don’t want to wait, or if you don’t trust your own judgment, you can get someone else to look over your manuscript with fresh eyes! Friends and family are a great resource, but consider looking for beta readers, or hiring one of those pro editors we mentioned.Don’t try to fix every issue at the same timeThese days we’re all apparently expected to multitask flawlessly, but take it from us: do not multitask your editing. If you’re doing it yourself, it’s best to break editing tasks down into a list and complete each item separately.For example, your first task might be to look for glue words and extraneous adverbs, your second task might be to break up run-on sentences, your third task might be to look for inconsistencies, and so on and so forth. Doing all these at once will surely lead to oversight - and exhaustion - so just take them on one at a time. You can go here to download a comprehensive editing checklist.7. Write the second d raftEdits all done? That means you’re ready for rewrites: the part where you actually transform your first draft into the second. It’s a magical process, even if does require a good deal of work. The following are some things to think about as you take this penultimate step of writing a book.Nail the opening hookLike reducing glue words, nailing the hook is another simple but pivotal fix you can make to your manuscript. That’s because both editors and readers are prone to quick judgements. If they positively judge your book by its cover and make it to the first page, the opening lines are the next test - and failure to pass could mean they give up on it entirely.Consider the following opening lines:â€Å"Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.† - Anna Kareninaâ€Å"We are going to die, and that makes us the lucky ones.† - Unweaving The Rainbowâ€Å"It was a queer, sultry summer, the summer they electrocuted the Rosenbergs, and I didn't know what I was doing in New York.† - The Bell Jarâ€Å"In the fall of 1993, a man who would upend much of what we know about habits walked into a laboratory in San Diego for a scheduled appointment.† - The Power of HabitThrough the use of strong statements or interesting anecdotes, each of these hooks creates intrigue right away. But that doesn’t mean you should go for clickbaity, flashy, second hand-car-salesman exclamations here. Rather, consider the aspects of your book that will naturally pique human interest, and lead with that.Rework those inconsistenciesInconsistencies are the plague of edits and rewrites: you have to deal with them or they’ll just get worse. So after highlighting them (or having someone else point them out) during the editing process, you need to prioritize inconsistencies in rewrites. Basic factual inconsistencies and superficial descriptive contradictions should be pretty quick to deal with. But f or deeper plot/structural problems, here are a few tactics you can try:1. Examine character dynamics. One of the most obvious indicators of inconsistent characterization is character dynamics - think of them as the canary in the coal mine. If character dynamics seem unnatural, there’s probably something else wrong†¦ probably because you haven’t made your characters well-rounded enough to sustain themselves.As a result, this is one of those fixes that will probably take some time. But if you sense something wrong with your character dynamics, don’t be afraid to take a deeper dive into overall characterization.2. Eliminate subplots. Luckily, this one's a bit less labor-intensive. Sometimes to root out confusing inconsistencies, you need to delete subplots or side stories that contradict either the main narrative, or your characters’ personalities and motivations. You may also have a subplot or secondary story that you love, but that doesn’t rea lly go anywhere. We know that cutting it out will be hard; just bite the bullet and do it.3. Explore different endings. The ending is often where spotty characterization rears its ugly head. For instance, a character who hates another character throughout the book does a 180 and falls in love with them (how many poorly plotted romances fall victim to this?). Or maybe a character who was seemingly making progress reverts to their previous, terrible self (we’ll call this the Andy Bernard phenomenon, one that any devoted fan of The Office will recognize).So don’t just leave a bad ending in place if it contradicts what would realistically happen. Again, it might be a lot of work to change, but your readers will thank you for â€Å"keeping it real† (as the kids say).Consider your conclusionSpeaking of your book’s ending, it’s important to consider not just potential inconsistencies, but the overall impact of your ending. Have you worked through all the problems you’ve posed throughout the book? Did you tie in all the themes you wanted to address, and does the ending subtly re-emphasize them? Will readers be satisfied with this point of resolution? (You may have to ask other people for their opinion on this.)Unlike rewriting your hook/intro, reworking your conclusion may involve going back throughout your book to insert other bits and pieces as well. For example, you might realize that you haven’t incorporated a certain theme enough for it to resonate in the conclusion. This means you have to retroactively work it into previous chapters. Again, don’t be afraid of the workload: embrace it as the thing that will make your book the best that it can be.8. Publish your book (if you want to!)Our heartiest congratulations to you - you’ve written a book! 👠 Your journey’s not quite over, though: now you get to decide what to do with it.Though we’ve titled this step â€Å"get it published,à ¢â‚¬  that’s not necessarily what you have to do next. Maybe you’ve written a book just to prove you that you could. But even so, it’s good to have the necessary information, in case you do eventually decide to pursue that route.Here’s a selection of our best resources on both traditional publishing and self-publishing, in the order that you’d most likely have to use them.Self-publishingIf you want to self-publish your book, but don’t know where to start:How to Self-Publish a Book (free course)All the considerations and requirements that go into self-publishing:The Essential Self-Publishing Checklist (blog post)For after you’ve self-published and you’re ready to start marketing:How to Create the Ultimate Book Marketing Plan (blog post)Traditional publishingWant to lock in a publisher before you start your non-fiction book?How to Submit a Non-Fiction Book Proposal (free course)If you’re hoping to acquire an agent who wil l represent your book:How to Write a Query Letter That Agents Can't Resist (free course)A comprehensive overview of traditional publishing:Traditional Publishing 101 (free course)Ultimately, what you do with your manuscript is up to you. But whether you keep locked in a chest (/untouched folder on your desktop) or publish it for all the world to see, just know that you’ve achieved something amazing - something you may not have believed possible just a few short months ago! So once again, well done. And if you do decide to publish, we can’t wait to see what you’ve created.  Ã°Å¸â€œâ€"Before you go, we can’t forget our last tip: once you’re finished, reach out to us with your top tips so we can add them to this post, and help other aspiring authors reach their goals. Or if you have some already, leave them in the comments below!

Are We Feeding the Poor People Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Are We Feeding the Poor People - Essay Example The underlying reason for this has to do with my understanding that the vast majority of this 47% of individuals that Romney indicated were dependent and â€Å"lazy† would ultimately love to have an opportunity to provide for themselves; however, they simply do not have the ability to do so. In such a way, the following analysis will be concentric upon describing this problem from a more nuanced perspective and analyzing this broad and differentiated group in terms of the responsibilities that citizens have towards their fellow citizens and the overall impact of providing services to those that are incapable of providing for themselves. Further, to understand the problem, it is necessary to know who comprises this 47%. According to Mitt Romney, the 47% represents those individuals within the United States that are not required to pay federal income taxes. The majority of these are the low-income households; most of which earn less than $ 30,000 a year. Of these, many are willing to work hard and earn a living; however, they cannot find full time employment as a result of the abysmal state of the economy. As such, they are trapped in minimum wage jobs; oftentimes working as part time employees. Not considering income taxes, these individuals can barely feed the families and provide for the basic necessities of life. As can be seen, expecting these very individuals to pay income tax would dis-incentivize engaging with the workforce and created a situation in which these very individuals would be worse off working several part-time jobs then they would be drawing unemployment checks and other forms of government welfare assistance. As can immediately be seen, simply categorizing these individuals as â€Å"lazy† is a gross exaggeration and misunderstanding of the labor force and how it works. The fact of the matter is that these individuals are not lazy and have instead chosen to work

Public Policy and Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Public Policy and Education - Essay Example In the United States, education has been the responsibility of state governments, and local politics have a great deal to do with determining public policy. Even so, the federal government has recently intervened, and the state government bodies in some cases resent this intervention. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislature of 2001 initiated by President George W. Bush has created controversy in every area of educational public policy. Special interest groups and organizations are focusing on areas such as special education, literacy, teacher certification, religion, scientific research, and lack of funds, which means that those most influential in the field of education are presently acting as political lobbyists. With the growing intervention of the federal government in education, politics rises to the forefront, even more than it has in past years. In an effort to show how various factions of education influence public policy, this paper will cover the areas noted above, noting specific controversies. Two areas in which state education policies are quite different are in New York State and in California. Because of this, different methods of applying federal policies have been necessary. In New York State, the Education Department is under the control of the University of the State of New York (USNY). USNY is the most complete interconnected system of educational services in the United States. It is not the same as the State University of New York (SUNY), which is the State's system of public colleges and universities. The Board of Regents heads USNY and sets overall educational policy for the State. The Board appoints a Commissioner of Education who heads the State Education Department and also serves as the president of USNY (Mills, 2007). This system revolves around education as a separate entity, and this allows for more political freedom to make decisions. In California, the State Board of Education (SBE) is the governing and policy making body of the California Department of Education. Unlike the New York State system in which the Board of Regents appoints a Commissioner of Education, the Governor appoints the members of the SBE (California, 2007). In this process, politics determine changes in public policy. No Child Left Behind According to Christopher T. Cross (2004), the "evolution of the federal role in education is a study in American politics" (Chapter 1, p. 1). Special interest groups in the last part of the twentieth century have covered a broad range of interests-bilingual education, women's studies, African American studies, and prayer in the classroom, to name a few. At present, recognition of these issues has been incorporated into the NCLB law, which has been in effect since 2002. Cross believes that federal policy in education will have an increasing impact in the coming decades and calls for policymakers and practitioners to gain a better understanding of the history of U.S. education and the future role of a federal Department of Education. He covers 50 years of federal education policy in his book and discusses the most recent effort in this field-the No Child Left Behind law of 2001, which he considers the catalyst for change brought about in this country by "consistent